This chapter examines protest participation as a distinct mode of political participation. The chapter

addresses four key questions: What is protest participation? How can it be studied? Who engages in it?

How can it be explained? Furthermore, we discuss the role of context for protest participation,

including how patterns of protest may differ between democratic and nondemocratic states, as well as

how protest participation has transformed over time, both in the long and in the shorter run. The

chapter makes two key arguments about protest participation. Firstly, concerning its definition, we

stress the fact that what is meant by protest participation changes over time and therefore analytical

tools must adapt to these changes. Secondly, concerning its explanation, we argue that, while there are

different approaches and research traditions stressing different explanatory factors – we can

distinguish in this regard between macro-structural, social-psychological, and predispositional

accounts –, some points of convergence exist amongst them and therefore we need to combine those

approaches and traditions in order to reach a better understanding of why and how people engage in

protest activities. The transformation of political participation is also discussed.